托福考试是申请美国留学的考生都要参加的考试。以下是考生分享的2012年11月24日托福阅读考试机经回忆的内容，即将参加托福考试的考生们可以借鉴参考一下试题，为下一次的新托福考试做好充足准备。希望对大家的美国留学托福阅读考试有所帮助。

TOPIC 灰草原猴发声(Vervet Monkeys Vocalization)

版本一：猴子的vocalization。三种方式，分别是：1、针对?(忘了是什么动物)，当听到这种 alarm call的时候，猴子会爬到树上去;2、针对eagle，当听到这种alarm call的时候，猴子会先向上看天空，然后会躲到丛林里，因为eagle能够从树上抓到猴子，所以猴子是不会爬到树上来避险的;3、针对蛇，这种情况下， 猴子们群起而攻击蛇。然后讲科学家们对猴子的vocalization的研究观察，有说即使没看到predator，猴子们听到alarm call也会做出相应的反应的。最后讲年轻的小猴子们是怎么学会vocalization的，老猴子们不会特意去训练小猴子们。一开始，小猴子不会识别友 善的还是敌对的动物，比如它们可能误以为鹰是友善的小鸟什么的，但是当它们发出alarm时，老猴子们一般会再巡视下周围，确定是什么predator， 然后老猴子会发出正确的alarm，这样，小猴子们也就慢慢学会了正确的vocalization了。

版本二：讲velvert(应该是这么拼吧) monkey，怎么用vocalization传递捕食者的信息，然后对应不同的应对措施，(1。地上的什么动物(忘了啊。。)，然后它们就躲到树上面 2。天上飞的老鹰，这个就不会像碰到第一种predator那样躲到树顶，3。草地里的蛇，说如果召唤到足够的帮手就attack 蛇。)后面还讲那些young monkey使用这种vobal不专业和它们怎么学习这种技巧。

版本三：bio一种猴子Vervet monkey在遇到各种捕猎者时候的向同伴发出的求救信号-大猫-老鹰-蛇还有小猴子学习大猴子模仿;某种猴子会发出三种声音,一种是对付大猫,一种是蛇,一种是鹰,然后说了baby monkey是怎么学会用这种voice alarm的。

这篇文章的主要部分与2002年5月SAT阅读真题内容基本一致，真题原文请见下。

Vervet Monkey Vocalizations[1]

2002年5月SAT阅读真题

This discussion of vervet monkeys is from a 1984 book about animal communication.

Vervet monkeys have at least three different categories of alarm calls. When a leopard or other large carnivorous mammal approaches, the monkeys give one type of alarm call; quite a different call is used at the sight of a martial eagle, one of the few flying predators that capturesvervet monkeys. A third type of alarm call is given when a large snake approaches the group. This degree of differentiation of alarm calls is not unique, although it has been described in only a few kinds of animals. When ethologists, who study animal behavior, interpret data of this kind, they require proof that variations in animal communication signals convey anything more than information about the communicator's internal state.

The first and relatively simple question is whether the vervet monkey's three types of alarm calls convey to other monkeys information about the type of predator. Such information is important, because the animal's defensive tactics are different in the three cases. When a leopard approaches, the monkeys climb into trees. But leopards are good climbers, so the monkeys can escape them only by climbing out onto the smallest branches, which are too weak to support a leopard. When the monkeys see a martial eagle, they move into thick vegetation close to a tree trunk or at ground level. Thus the tactics that help escape from a leopard make them highly vulnerable to a martial eagle, and vice versa. In response to the threat of a large snake, they stand on their hind legs and look around to locate the snake, then simply move away from it, either along the ground or by climbing into a tree.

Knowing that the monkeys give different alarm calls when they see different predators does not establish beyond a doubt that the calls actually describe the type of predator. When the monkeys, which are usually close to each other, hear an alarm call, each one quickly looks around at the caller. Like many other animals, they are adept at judging the direction in which another animal is looking, so they can easily see what the caller is looking at. This serves much the same function as pointing. When monkeys other than the caller take the appropriate action to avoid the danger, it is difficult to be sure whether they are acting solely on the basis of the call or whether the call simply led them to look at the source of the danger.

To clarify this situation, researchers conducted some carefully controlled playback experiments under natural conditions. The basic idea was to play from a concealed loudspeaker tape recordings of vervet alarm calls when vervets had just seen a leopard, a martial eagle, or a large python, and to inquire whether these playbacks, in the absence of a predator, would elicit the normal response. The experiments required many precautions and refinements. For instance, vervet monkeys come to know each other as individuals, not only by visual appearance but by minor differences in their vocalizations. They might not respond even to an alarm call recorded from one of their own companions if that individual was in plain sight some distance from the vegetation concealing the speaker. In all experiments, the loudspeaker reproduced calls of a member of the group, and the speaker was hidden in a place when the monkeys would expect that individual to be. The experiments had to be prepared with tape recordings of a known member of a well-studied group of vervet monkeys and a hidden speaker located where this individual frequently spends time.

When all these conditions were satisfied, the playback of alarm calls did indeed elicit the appropriate responses. The monkeys responded to the leopard alarm call by climbing into the nearest tree; the martial eagle alarm caused them to dive into thick vegetation; and the python alarm produced the typical behavior of standing on the hind legs and looking all around for the nonexistent snake. Not all ethologists have accepted the straightforward interpretation that the alarm calls convey information about the type of predator. One alternative interpretation is that the alarm calls are injunctions to behave in certain ways. Thus the leopard alarm might mean "Go climb into a tree. But even this interpretation necessarily ascribes three specific types of injunction to the vocabulary of vervet monkeys. Even such postulated injunctions would be more than a simple reflection of the internal state of the communicator.

The development of alarm call behaviour in mammals and birds[2]

Rather than being age adaptive, young might alarm call toa greater number of species than adults because they make moreerrors. For example, Seyfarth& Cheney (1980) showed that alarmcalls normally given by adult vervet monkeys to threatening stimuliare often uttered by young in response to nondangerous stimuli,such as doves (Streptopelia sp.), falling leaves or warthogs, Phacochoerusafricanus, although these overgeneralizations are notentirely random: infants give ‘leopard’ alarms primarily to terrestrialmammals, ‘eagle’ alarms to objects in the air, and ‘snake’alarms to snakes or long thin objects on the ground. As they growolder, vervets restrict their calling to particular predator specieswithin these general classes. Although little is known about theneurological basis of alarm calling (see above), it could be that theincreased vulnerability of young results in nervous systems andbrain structures that are more sensitive to external stimulationthan those of adults (Wiedenmayer 2009). The threshold for callingmight therefore be lower in young, resulting in the production ofalarm calls in contexts that would not elicit adult calling; developmentof adult-like call usage might therefore arise because ofneurological maturation.

Alternatively, adult-like call usage might develop throughincreased experience with predator encounters and the alarm callsof others: individuals could learn to make fewer mistakes andbecome better at conveying the correct information. By hearingothers use specific calls only in certain contexts, young could learnby association. There is also some evidence that adults mightreinforce correct alarm call usage by juveniles. For example, adultvervet monkeys are more likely to give second alarm calls wheninfants alarm call to known predators than to nonpredators (Seyfarth& Cheney 1980), although no data are available on whetherthis leads to more rapid development. Moreover, if reinforcementdoes play a role, it may be inadvertent from an adult’s perspectivebecause they are equally likely to give second alarms followinga correct alarm call by another adult as they are following a correctalarm call by a juvenile (Seyfarth& Cheney 1986). So, while adultresponses may facilitate learning of correct alarm call usage, adultsdo not appear actively to teach infants in this context (Thornton &Raihani 2008).

TOPIC 古埃及战后的社会变化和外来文化的影响

版本一：埃及在经历独立解放战争和领土扩张战争后，社会的一些变化。一是关于艺术和宗教的变化，外来的 god和本地的god不同(有说god的问题比较好解决，因为都是关于natureforce;还有说本地的god 影响会变小);二是关于权利拥有者的变化(temple 宗教势力获得了大量的战争reward从而财富增加，另外士兵军事势力的增大)，三是具有争议的，king是代表god独立行使权利(central)， 还是king需要教士、宗教势力的辅助来管理国家?

版本二：Egypt被外来文化的影响，什么temple，milirary，它们的god的地位的变化，，，云云。没怎么理解。

版本三：历史类，Egypt的战争扩展领土后对社会的影响;埃及的文化以及国王;埃及自从别的国家扩张以来,各种文化艺术power都被影响。

Ancient Egypt[3]

New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period, and Late Period

The first king of the 18th Dynasty, Ahmose I, completed the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, which his brother Kamose had begun. Once again, the south united a fractured land, giving rise to the New Kingdom (about 1550-1070 bc). During Ahmose’s reign, which lasted from about 1550 to 1525 bc, the central government was reestablished, the economy improved, and Egypt’s borders were extended to the south and east. His reign set the stage for the continuing expansionist activities of the kings who followed. During the 18th Dynasty, Egyptians began using the term pharaoh (literally “great house,” a reference to the palace) to refer to their king. At its zenith, Egypt under the 18th Dynasty controlled an area that extended south into what is now Sudan and east into the Middle East. Much of this imperial expansion is credited to Thutmose III, the dynasty’s fifth king, who extended Egyptian control farther than had any other ruler. Thutmose III began his reign as a coregent in 1479 bc but ruled alone after the death of Hatshepsut, his stepmother, who ruled from 1473 to 1458 bc. As a daughter of a pharaoh (Thutmose I) and the wife of one (Thutmose II), Hatshepsut took full control of the throne as the ruling pharaoh during her reign. The relationship between her and Thutmose III apparently was one of mutual coexistence. However, late in his reign as sole king, Thutmose III began removing Hatshepsut’s name and images from all painted or carved surfaces, thus expunging her memory for posterity.

Amenhotep III, the ninth king of the 18th Dynasty, had a long and fairly peaceful reign of almost 40 years (1391-1353 bc). It was marked by unprecedented wealth, cultural creativity, internal strength, and prominence in the ancient world. The king built a magnificent pleasure palace at Thebes, constructed and decorated huge temples throughout the land, and encouraged a flowering of the arts. The influence and power of the priesthood of Amun also increased in Egypt at this time, but the stature of the ruler remained supreme. In fact, Amenhotep III emphasized his own divinity with a focus on divine birth, as seen in reliefs on the walls of Luxor Temple (portions of which he built) at Thebes and in statues bearing his divine name.

Amenhotep IV, the son and successor of Amenhotep III, reigned for less than 20 years (1353-1335 bc). However, his reign represented a focal point in history. He introduced the concept of a single supreme deity, Aton (Aten), the disk of the sun, radically changing the belief systems that had been in place in Egypt for more than 1,000 years. The somewhat monotheistic religion that he developed was the first yet known. In addition, there are indications that the new religion focused even more on the divinity of the king than ever before. Along with the religious changes came modifications in other areas, such as art, language, and architecture. Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaton (“The one who is beneficial to Aton”). He abandoned Thebes and built a new capital at Akhetaton, between Thebes and Memphis. The new capital had innovative plans and structures. For example, temples had no roofs, to let the sunlight in. The art used to decorate its walls displayed a more natural style, and texts composed there used a unique hybrid grammar. Akhenaton's revolution, sometimes known as the Amarna period (after the site of modern excavations of Akhetaton), was short-lived, however, and his successors quickly restored the traditional beliefs. Tutankhamun, who some scholars think may have been the king’s son by a minor wife, married the princess Ankhesenamun and succeeded to the throne. He is known to history not so much for reestablishing order after this chaotic period as for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, filled with magnificent treasures.

The last pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Horemheb, was a general under his predecessors. He reigned from 1319 to 1307 bc and set the precedent for the military pharaohs who ruled during the 19th Dynasty, which lasted from 1307 to 1196 bc. The ability to command troops became critical for Egypt’s survival, since rival powers in Asia and elsewhere created difficulties in the coming years. Ramses II, the third king of the 19th Dynasty, ruled for about 67 years, from 1290 to 1224 bc. He battled the Hittites from Asia Minor. The conflict, which at best was a draw, resulted in the first recorded peace treaty. Ramses III, of the 20th Dynasty, was the last of the military pharaohs. He ruled from 1194 to 1163 bc. He had to contend with incursions by both the Libyans from the west and invaders from the Aegean region, known as the Sea Peoples. The remaining kings of the 20th Dynasty were less able to maintain Egypt’s place in the ancient world. During their reigns, as well as those of the kings of the 21st Dynasty, Egypt’s position was eclipsed.

During this period of decline, internal problems arose in the form of a struggle for power between the pharaoh and the priesthood. By the beginning of the 21st Dynasty in 1070 bc, Egypt was in another period of transition, the Third Intermediate Period, which lasted until 712 bc. Rival centers were established. Smendes, the first king of the 21st Dynasty, ruled only in the north near Memphis, while a line of high priests at Thebes controlled the south. The 22nd Dynasty (945-712 bc), centered at Bubastis in the western delta, clearly reflected an earlier Libyan presence in Egypt. Its first king, Sheshonk I, who ruled from 945 to 924 bc, even bore the title of Great Chief of the Meshwesh Libyans. Sheshonk I and his successors were able to reunite the country internally, but rival factions arose again with the 23rd Dynasty (828-725 bc). At the same time, the kingdom of Kush in Nubia had been gaining strength, wealth, and power. Soon it controlled much of Egypt, and the Kushites established the 25th Dynasty (770-657 bc). In the north, the 24th Dynasty (724-712 bc) ruled at Sais in the western delta, but it survived for only 12 years.

War with the Assyrians brought about the end of Nubian domination (see Assyria). In the 7th century bc, Psamtik I, ruling at first from Sais, reunited the land in 664 bc, ushering in the 26th Dynasty and the Late Period. His reign and those of his successors brought a revival of the traditions of the past and the recapturing of some of Egypt’s former reputation. Unfortunately, the respite lasted only a short time, for in 525 bc the Persians occupied the country (see Persia). The Persian kings were regarded as the 27th Dynasty. The Egyptians were able to regain control in 404 bc, but their last native dynasties ruled under conditions of internal discord and continual external conflicts. The Persians regained control of Egypt in 343 bc. Then, just 11 years later, in 332 bc, Macedonian king Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and annexed it to his Hellenistic empire. When he died in 323 bc, his friend and general Ptolemy became satrap, or governor, of Egypt. In 305 bc he took the title of king of Egypt, thus founding the Ptolemaic dynasty of pharaohs. This line of Hellenistic rulers held power for almost 300 years. Cleopatra VII, the last of them, committed suicide after the Romans defeated her forces at the Battle of Actium in 31 bc. The next year, Egypt was made part of the Roman Empire.

What type of government did ancient Egypt have?[4]

The pharaoh was the supreme ruler. Egyptologists believe the people of Egypt considered the pharaoh to be half man/half God. However, the ancient belief in "The Divine Right of Kings" assumed that the first child born to the "supreme ruler" was ordained to be king by God because He had effectively determined the person who would be that child. This obviated the need to elect a head of state and is still one of the main reasons why many modern systems of government continue to use this manner of establishing the Head of State today. It is doubtful that any ancient Egyptian believed the king or pharaoh was God. Likewise, no Englishmen ever thought King Charles I was God even though they believed in the "Divine Right of Kings" as many of us still do today. Certainly King Charles I who believed in God never considered himself to be God. However, he did believe God gave him rights to dismiss Parliament. Only when the king behaved really badly did the people or army overthrow the king e.g., after the death of Akhenaten of Egypt.

The pharaoh owned all of Egypt, the land and all the people in it. Also, he could order farmers to build pyramids for him when they didn't work. He taxed everything. According to the Bible, this happened after Montuhotep I of the 11th dynasty installed Joseph of Israel ("Inyotef") to be Prime Minister when Egypt was stricken by the terrible seven year famine the whole world suffered in circa 1900 BC. In gratitude to Joseph, the Egyptian kings Montuhotep I and Inyotef I to II named their successor after Joseph.

They used something called the SOCIAL PYRAMID to determine your spot. Kind of like the food chain. Slaves were at the bottom (because there were lots of them) then you had farmers, then crafts people, then government officials, then soldiers, then pharaoh (smallest space because one person not millions). This is the norm for most societies and is not necessarily unique to Egypt.

It depended on the period. During New Kingdom Egypt, the acquisition of an empire meant that the government or administration of Egypt had to become much more refined, structured and efficient. Pharaoh was still the supreme head, but directly under him ruled the two Viziers, of Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as the High Priest (s) of Amun. By repairing the Egyptian chronology problem, we now view Egypt as having two eras which could be named the Old then New Kingdoms or before the "Hyksos" (Old Kingdom, to 1500 BC) and after the Hyksos (New Kingdom, 1000-600 BC). The "acquisition of empire" came with the conquests of Thutmosis III now dated 930 BC not circa 1420 BC.

These Viziers held various titles, and were the overseers of public works, including buildings, quarrying and temple repairs. They were the heads of civil service, the collectors of tribute and tax as well as the chief judges. They were chosen by pharaoh himself; "take the office, watch over everything that has to do with it, for the existence of the entire country depends on it".

The High Priests of Amun, Ptah and Re were very influential in Egypt, none more so than the ones of Amun during the New Kingdom period. Temples acted as miniature central governments outside Memphis, and were in charge of the stores, maintenance of temple cults, upkeep of the gods, ceremonies, funerary rites and huge amounts of land, cattle grain and crops. Scribes were also an important part of the religious government as they were responsible for writing the records and official documents.

When the 18th and 19th dynasties fell (800-680 BC and at various times from circa 600 BC but under foreign suzerainties (Chaldea, Persia, Greece), priest kings sometimes took power in various regions of Egypt. According to the Bible, they retained their land when Joseph took control over privately-held land in the great famine. Unlike in the England of Henry VIII, the religious orders in Egypt kept control over their land.

Following the expulsion of the Hyksos at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, the military became an ever increasingly important part of Egyptian society. Pharaoh was the head of the military, and this period saw the begging to the "Warrior Pharaoh" (e.g., Thutmosis III), who smote his enemies in the name of Amun wearing the Kpresh. The military had its own hierarchy, there were deputy commanders, one for the north and a second for the south, and officers that served underneath them. The military bureaucracy involved anyone that had a hand in organizing war, and included villages of military veterans and the Garrisons within Egypt. The highest ranked soldiers were usually nobles, and had the job of teaching the young princes, (even princesses) and pharaohs the skills or warfare. At home, pharaoh ruled his country with the same absolute power, efficiency and meticulous attention to detail that characterized his command of the army. Pharaoh's power over the civil government no longer rested on his status as a god, but rather on his 'control of the machinery of government, including the army and police'. The central administration occurred in Memphis, but there were separate administration units in towns, villages and provinces. with town majors, police, viceroys and local councils.

The structure of New Kingdom government ensured that, apart from pharaoh, there was no single person of entity whose jurisdiction extended over the whole kingdom, let alone the whole empire. The maintenance of a government operating at peak efficiency and free of corruption required the constant supervision of the king to an extent never before required by an Egyptian Ruler.

TOPIC 海胆对褐藻的影响

版本一：关于一种海洋生物(动物?)对一种海洋植物(类似海藻)数量的影响。首先说这种动物会吃这个植物 (记不太清了)，彻底或有选择性地破坏植物, 还有。。。人们发现当这种生物增多的时候，植物会减少或增长变缓。第二段提出不能简单的认为，植物的减少完全是这种生物的原因。貌似说，因为在这种生物的 predator增多的时候，植物并没有增多。所以人们提出另一个原因，环境变化。接着，又说在某个特定的地方，这种生物的数量和植物的数量确实密切相关。后面的。。。忘了。

版本二：某种动物(urchin?)对seawed的影响的观点。然后提出了一些weakness。。

忘了忘了。。。记不住啊。。

版本三：bio话题，说的一个海洋生物类似贝壳类的动物的数量和周围环境kelp以及各种捕食者的关系;海里的某种ur什么和kelp的关系。

Kelp forest[5]

Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their food webs), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and the subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment.This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher trophic levels. By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit the biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are non-limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests,sea otters (Enhydralutris) control populations of herbivorous sea urchins through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of the kelp itself results in the loss of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the keystone species that mediates this trophic cascade. In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes. The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because there is redundancy in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins.However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation. Similar examples exist in Nova Scotia,South Africa, Australia and Chile.The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and the strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation.

The Disappearing Kelp Forest[6]

If you were to dive into the cool coastal waters of the Channel Islands, you might find yourself swimming through a magnificent underwater forest of enormousalga called kelp. Kelp is a type of seaweed that can grow almost two thirds of a meter per day. Kelp forests provide a home for hundreds of species, like sea urchins, brittle stars, and sea slugs.

Generally, an increase in sea urchin density at Johnson’s Lee South is associated with a decrease in kelp density. However, other factors in the ecosystem such as disease outbreaks, pollution, and other human activities may alter this relationship.. After severe El Niño events, large numbers of sea urchins appear in the kelp forest, which reduce kelp density.

[1]http://www.psych.upenn.edu/~seyfarth/Baboon%20research/vervet%20vox.htm

[2] Linda I. Holle´n*, Andrew N. Radford, School of Biological Sciences, University ofBristolhttp://www.bio.bris.ac.uk/research/behavior/vocal_communication/pdfs/alarm_call_review.pdf

[3]Silverman, David Peter. "Ancient Egypt."Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

[4]http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_type_of_government_did_ancient_Egypt_have

[5]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp_forest

[6]Extension of JASON XIV: From Shore to Sea — Unit 4

以上就是2012年11月24日托福阅读考试机经回忆的全部内容，各位考生可以以此作为参考，做好复习。最后预祝各位考生取得理想的成绩!

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